FROM THE EDITORIAL DIRECTOR
Dr. Farida Khanam has been a professor at the Department of Islamic Studies at Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi. A Study of World's Major Religions, A Simple Guide to Sufism are two of the books amongst others, of which she is the author. She has also translated many books on Islam authored by Maulana Wahiduddin Khan. Currently, the chairperson of Centre for Peace and Spirituality (CPS International), an organization founded by her father Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, she is a regular contributor of articles to journals, newspapers and magazines. Dr. Khanam has edited Maulana’s English translation of the Quran and has also translated his Urdu commentary of the Quran into English. Under Maulana Wahiduddin Khan Peace Foundation, along with the CPS team, she has designed a series of courses on peace-building, countering extremism and conflict resolution.
PIOUS CALIPHATE
THE FIRST four Caliphs after the Prophet are known as the ‘Rightly Guided Caliphs’. They were successors of the Prophet in the real sense of the word. They were all senior Companions of the Prophet. They were chosen by the Muslims for their closeness to the Prophet and for their outstanding character. They were humble, unselfish, tolerant, God-fearing, and well-versed in the Quran. They remained in close touch with the people. They refused to take any luxuries for themselves.
Masters of a vast empire, they continued to lead simple lives just as the Prophet had done before them. During the 30 years of their rule, Islam made great progress. This period of Islamic rule is the golden period of justice and fair play. That is why these Caliphs are called rightly guided, for they ruled the people of their time exactly in accordance with the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet. They considered themselves as simple servants of God.
Abu Bakr As-Siddiq—The First Caliph (632-34)
Abu Bakr was a rich merchant of Makkah, belonging to the Quraysh
tribe. At the time when Muhammad was endowed with prophethood,
Abu Bakr had gone to Yemen on business. When he came back, people
immediately came to him to give him the ‘strange’ news of Muhammad receiving revelations through Gabriel. Having been the Prophet’s close
friend since boyhood (born in Makkah in AD 573, he was just three
years younger than the Prophet), Abu Bakr was too keenly aware of the
sincerity and truthfulness of the Prophet to have any misgivings.
However, on hearing this news, Abu Bakr went to see the Prophet, and
asked him about the message of this religion that he was preaching.
Having unshakeable faith in the Prophet, he accepted Islam without
any second thoughts. That is why he was given the title As-Siddiq (the
upright) by the Prophet. He was thus the first male to embrace Islam,
and was one of the Prophet’s oldest supporters. Abu Bakr’s father,
Usman, (better known as Abu Qahafa) and his
mother, Salma, had named him Abdul Kaaba,
meaning “the servant of the Kaaba”. But when
he embraced Islam, the Prophet changed this
pagan name to Abdullah and gave him the
surname of Abu Bakr.
Without knowledge, action is useless and knowledge without action is futile. — Abu Bakr
Even prior to Islam, Abu Bakr had been respected for his good moral character. He was honest and truthful and had good relations with everyone. The Quraysh trusted him and consulted him for solutions to their problems. Now, after having accepted Islam, he began to spread the word of God in his own social circle. As a result of his efforts, some very promising and talented people accepted Islam, most of whom were his friends. They were—Usman ibn Affan, Zubayr ibn al-Awam, Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah, Khalid ibn Sayeed, etc.
When the Quraysh came to know of his role in the spread of Islam, they turned against him and began to persecute him. But he patiently bore all their oppression and faithfully stood by the Prophet amidst all perils. He spent all his wealth in the cause of Islam. It was because of his sincerity and dedication to the cause of Islam that the Prophet chose him to accompany him when he migrated from Makkah to Madinah. His self-sacrificing friendship and his devotion to the cause of Islam was rewarded by his name being immortalized in the Quran as “the second of the two.” (9: 40)
Soon after the Prophet and Abu Bakr migrated to Madinah, in obedience to a divine injunction, the Muslims then left their home and hearth for Madinah. But the Quraysh did not allow them to rest in peace even in Madinah. They waged many battles in their bid to uproot the Muslims from the city. Abu Bakr took part in all these defensive battles. He was always with the Prophet and accompanied him on all his campaigns. He never showed any weakness, always standing like a rock by the side of the Prophet.
Tabuk was the last expedition of the Prophet of Islam. He asked people to give generously in aid of it. Abu Bakr was the only person to give all he had to the cause of Islam. The Prophet asked him whether he had anything left for his wife and children. He replied that God and His apostle were enough for them. No one could surpass him so far as selfless service to Islam was concerned. Not only was he the first man to accept Islam, but he was also the foremost among the Muslims to uphold the cause of God.
After Makkah was conquered, the Prophet sent Abu Bakr in 631 to Makkah to lead the Hajj on behalf of the Prophet. Abu Bakr read the customary sermon (Khutba) of Hajj.
If an ignorant person is attracted by the things of the world, that is bad. But if a learned person is thus attracted, it is worse. — Abu BakrEver since the Prophet had arrived in Madinah, he had been in the habit of leading the prayer himself. During his last illness, the Prophet became so incapacitated that he could not come to the mosque for this purpose. The Prophet then asked Abu Bakr to conduct the prayer in the mosque and to lead the Muslims in his stead. Aisha, who was Abu Bakr’s daughter and the wife of the Prophet, thought that her tender-hearted father would not be able to bear this burden. She therefore requested the Prophet to ask someone else to perform this duty. But the Prophet did not change his mind. Thus, in the lifetime of the Prophet, Abu Bakr came to fill the highest office. This distinction made it possible for Umar and his friends, after the Prophet’s death in 632, to propose Abu Bakr as the head of the community. Abu Bakr thus became Caliph (the successor of the Prophet) by the general consent of the people.
Thanks to his simple but firm character, he was able to lead the young Muslim community successfully through the most difficult times. After the death of the Prophet, a number of the Arab tribes revolted. Most of them had embraced Islam after the conquest of Makkah in AD 629- 630 and had not had the opportunity to undergo any proper training by the Prophet. Being used to a free and easy life, they found such Islamic injunctions as zakat (compulsory alms-giving)) and jihad more than they could stand. They were under the impression that, after the Prophet, God’s succour too had come to an end.
But Abu Bakr did not let the situation get out of hand. He dealt with them firmly, having chosen the brave general Khalid ibn al-Walid as the commander of his forces. He successfully suppressed all revolts and brought all the Arabian tribes under the control of Islam. Abu Bakr treated the vanquished mercifully. This helped re-establish peace in the country. Arabia was brought under control within less than a year. Later, Abu Bakr sent Khalid and other able generals on a campaign against Persia and Byzantine.
By resorting to these measures, Abu Bakr very successfully brought about much-needed unity among the Muslim community. During his short rule, the Arabian army saw several victories. Al-Hira in Persia was conquered in 633.
Our abode in this world is transitory, our life therein is but a loan, our breaths are numbered and our indolence is manifest. — Abu Bakr
Soon after, Abu Bakr fell victim to a fatal illness in AD 634. On his death bed what Abu Bakr feared more than anything was division among the Muslims. He wanted to make sure that no difference should divide them after he was gone. After much thought, he decided to nominate Umar as his successor. When he put his choice before the senior Companions, they all approved of it. When all of the Companions had agreed to this, he went ahead with the nomination.
Abu Bakr passed away two weeks after the appointment of Umar. According to his wish, he was buried by the side of the Prophet, and his body was wrapped in the same old clothes in which he had died. His rule had lasted for two years and three months.
Abu Bakr had lived a very simple and modest life. He had had neither servants nor bodyguards. He used to come early in the morning to the Prophet’s mosque to carry out the duties of the state and to perform the congregational prayers. He even did routine chores at home, sweeping the floor, feeding and milking the goats, etc. Abu Bakr lived and worked for Islam till his last breath. Although his rule lasted only for two years, three months and ten days—a very short span of time for a nation—he had been able to perform great feats. One of the many great contributions made by Abu Bakr was the collection and collation of the Quran in codex form. His achievements have rendered his name immortal.
Umar ibn al-Khattab—The Second Caliph (634-44)
Umar ibn Khattab, the second Caliph is the founder of the Arab empire.
He was born in pagan Makkah. He embraced Islam through the efforts
of his sister Fatimah, four years before the migration to Madinah.
He was completely opposed to the Prophet at first. He had actually
set out to kill him. But while on his way, someone told him that his
sister and her husband had become Muslims. On hearing the most
shocking news he diverted his course, and rushed to his sister’s home
in great fury. At that moment Fatimah was reading some passage from
the Quran. She tried to hide that section of the Quran as she saw him
coming. But Umar burst into the house without giving them any time
and began beating his brother-in-law. His sister too got wounded
while attempting to protect her husband. Umar saw blood oozing from
their faces. On seeing these wounds, Umar calmed down. He took the
text from her and read it himself. He was so greatly moved by these
divine words that he asked them to take him
to Muhammad immediately to proclaim his
acceptance of Islam.
Islam will be destroyed by the mistakes of scholars, the arguments of the hypocrites who misinterpret the Quran to support their views and misleading rulers. — Umar ibn al-Khattab
As soon as he joined the believers, the community became very strong. He was famed for his bravery, intelligence and was endowed with a towering personality. Although he held no official position, he became the real organizer of the newly formed community of the believers. He became one of the Prophet’s chief advisors. His part was in fact more of a counsellor than of a soldier, although he did take part in the battles.
Umar was so exceptionally gifted by nature that the power after Abu Bakr naturally passed on to him. Although he was nominated by Abu Bakr, the majority of the Companions accepted him as Caliph without any hesitation. He held this office from AD 634 to 644. When Umar assumed power, the great expansion by conquest had already begun. Umar himself had contributed to it especially in his capacity as advisor to Abu Bakr.
It is one of his greatest achievements that he brought the fiercely independent Bedouins under control and executed his plans of expansion so successfully. All the generals were under his full control. One of his uncanny ability lay in recognizing the talents of people. Umar would unmistakably choose that person and employ him for the job he was best suited for. For example, he made maximum use of the Umayyad family in the execution of his plans for the spread of Islam.
During his reign, the Muslims, under Khalid the celebrated general, conquered Persia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. In Jerusalem, the Christian ruler Sophronius set a condition for surrender—that only if Caliph Umar comes there in person and signs the treaty of peace only then they would surrender. The Caliph therefore set out in 637 for Jerusalem with one servant and a camel. Since there was only one camel, he and his servants rode the camel by turns. It happened that on the day they were to reach Jerusalem it was the turn of the servant. The servant insisted on giving his turn to him saying that it will look awkward that the servant is riding and the Caliph leading the camel. But Umar thought it was not according to the spirit of justice so he refused to do so.
Do not be fooled by one who recites the Quran. His recitation is but speech—but look to those who act according to it. — Umar ibn al-Khattab
When the Palestinians saw the Caliph of a vast empire in rough, patched cloak, walking on foot with no grain of pride and haughtiness, they threw their gates open to welcome him into the Holy City. Umar signed the peace treaty with the Christians of Jerusalem, granted them full religious freedom to practise their religion and full state protection.
Umar adopted the title of Amir al-Muminin (Leader of the believers) rather than the Khalifah Rasul Allah (deputy of the messenger of God) as Abu Bakr was called. He also instituted the Hijrah (migration) to mark the commencement of the Muslim calendar (622 CE). He instituted Diwan-e-Ata, which gave out stipends to all Muslims. He founded military centres such as Basra, Kufah, Fustat, which later developed into great cities of Islam. He created the office of Qazi (Judge). Umar was a political genius. He succeeded in uniting all the disparate elements during his rule. A new Muslim state emerged under his able leadership.
In spite of being the powerful ruler of an empire he lived an extremely simple life. Because of his high moral character he inspired respect and admiration from all alike. He was at the height of his powers when he was stabbed by Abu Lulu on November 3, 644, a Persian Christian. Umar was thus not only a great ruler but also an embodiment of all the virtues of Islam.
Usman ibn Affan—The Third Caliph (644-656)
Usman was born six years after the Prophet and he belonged to the
Umayyad tribe of the Quraysh. He was a cloth merchant and was so
rich that he was known as Al-Ghani (the rich). He was Abu Bakr’s friend
and it was Abu Bakr who had introduced Islam to him. Usman accepted
Islam without questioning. He was the only member of the Umayyads
to become a Muslim during the time of the
persecution of Muslims. He was married
to the Prophet’s daughter Ruqayya. On
being persecuted by the Quraysh due to his
conversion, he asked Prophet’s permission
to migrate to Abyssinia, the land of the kind
Christian king, Najashi (Negus). He and his
wife Ruqayya were thus among the first to
give up their home in the cause of God. When
Muslims began to emigrate to Madinah,
Usman too, along with his wife, came to
Madinah and settled there.
No one conceals something in his heart, but God causes it to be seen on his face or in the slip of the tongue. — Usman ibn Affan
Ruqayya took ill in Madinah and died thereafter. Usman was very sad. So the Prophet married his second daughter to Usman. This was a great honour. Usman came to be known as “Zun Noorain”, the possessor of two lights. He acted as the Prophet’s emissary during the Hudaybiya peace treaty. Usman was also one of the scribes of the Prophet. He wrote portions of the Quran as and when they were revealed. He was also one of the ten Companions whom the Prophet had given the good news of Paradise.
Umar, on his deathbed, had nominated a six-man council to choose a Caliph from among its members. These members were Ali, Usman, Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, Zubair ibn Awam, Talha ibn Obaidullah. After great deliberations, Usman was offered the Caliphate. Usman ibn Affan became the third Caliph of Islam. Azerbaijan and Armenia were conquered during the rule of Umar. But after the dismissal of Saad ibn Abi Waqqas’ governorship, Azerbaijan revolted. Usman ordered military action against it and the Province was brought again under the Caliphate.
Muawiya, Governor of Syria with the help of Abi Sarah, the Governor of Egypt, invaded Cyprus and brought it under Islamic rule. Cyprus served as a military base for the Muslims.
Usman was a simple and kind-hearted man, because of which many of his subordinates holding key positions did not fear being taken to task.
The administration of a vast empire needed a man of stern character like Umar. Although Usman was a deeply religious man, he proved to be a weak leader. His administration was not so disciplined as that of Umar, the second Caliph. Usman felt that by appointing his friends and relatives to key positions he will be able to manage administrative affairs. But this did not happen. Having no fear for being taken to task by the kind-hearted Caliph, they were all the more emboldened to rule according to their own whims and fancies, without looking after the public good. The public resented such callousness, holding the Caliph responsible for the bad administration. They even demanded his abdication, but the Caliph refused to do so. The Egyptians in particular were angry with him. They blamed the Caliph for replacing a capable governor there with his own cousin who set taxes more than they could bear to pay.
This dissension finally developed into a state of civil war. The Egyptians took more active part in this revolt. They demanded his resignation but Usman rejected all such advice and preached a public sermon against them. Soon afterwards, while he was at prayer, a group of these unruly men attacked and killed him. The period of his caliphate lasted from 644 to 656.
The highest degree in faith is that you always regard yourself in the presence of God. — Usman ibn Affan
Usman’s most important contribution to the cause of Islam was the preparation of the second and final version of the Quran. He ordered the Quran to be written in the Quraysh dialect of Arabic. Then he commanded that a few copies of it be made and sent to the centres of the Muslim province. Every other version was destroyed, and the Quran has remained absolutely unchanged for the centuries.
Ali ibn Abi Talib—The Fourth Caliph (656-661)
Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet of Islam, was
elected the fourth Caliph. He reigned from 656 to 661.
Ali was a profoundly religious man devoted entirely to the cause of Islam. He was born in Makkah about the year 600 to Abu Talib, chief of the clan of Banu Hashim. Ali was adopted by the Prophet and lived with him in the same house. For, once Makkah suffered from economic depression. Abu Talib, Prophet’s uncle had a very large family, therefore the Prophet took into his care Ali, to lighten the burden of Abu Talib.
One day, when the Prophet and Khadija were worshipping together, Ali happened to see them kneeling and prostrating themselves and reciting Quranic revelations. Ali found it very strange. He asked the Prophet: “To whom were you prostrating yourself.” The Prophet answered, “We have prostrated ourselves to God.” The Prophet then explained to him about God and the revelations he had received. Then the Prophet invited him to worship God alone without associating anyone with Him. Ali was excited but thought that he ought to consult his father about it. However, he could not wait any longer. The very next morning he came rushing to the Prophet and declared to them his acceptance of faith, saying: “God created me without consulting my father. Why then should I consult him in order to worship God?” Ali was the first youth to enter the fold of Islam at the age of 10. He remained a lifelong devoted follower of the Prophet.
Never make a decision in anger and never make a promise in happiness. — Ali ibn Abi Talib
On the night of the migration in 622 it was Ali who risked his life by sleeping in the Prophet’s bed at a time when his house was surrounded by bloodthirsty men with drawn swords with the plot of assassinating the Prophet. Ali lay there so that the Prophet may leave unnoticed. The Prophet further asked him to stay in Makkah in order to restore all things, entrusted to the Prophet, to their rightful owners in Makkah. Only after carrying out this request of the Prophet Ali left for Madinah. In Madinah Ali married Prophet’s daughter Fatima. Two sons, Hasan and Husain were born to them in Madinah.
Ali was extremely brave. He used to display great feats of courage and bravery during the military campaigns. He was also one of the Prophet’s scribes. He was chosen by the Prophet for several important missions. Ali was invited by the Muslims of Madinah to assume the office of the Caliphate after the murder of Usman, the third Caliph. For three days after Usman’s murder Madinah remained completely in the grip of rioters. In such a state of affairs when Ali’s name was proposed he refused at first. But the people of Madinah prevailed upon him to give second thought and come forward to serve the people. Ali therefore agreed reluctantly after hesitating for a long time.
His brief reign was beset by difficulties. The forces of lawlessness had been unleashed. Ali wanted first to concentrate on consolidating his administration and after that to take action against Usman’s murderers. He wanted to wait until the conditions were normalized. But the supporters of Usman did not listen to what Ali had to say. They thought that Ali was trying to evade the issue.
The murder of Usman had far reaching effects on Islamic history. The united and determined Muslim community was divided forever. Instead of going out to the frontiers they were involved in internecine clashes. Instead of concentrating on consolidation Ali had to spend all his time in pacifying the warring factions. He did his best to restore peace but he failed to do so without receiving the support of the people.
Ali wanted to establish his rule on the Islamic ideals of social justice and equality. But the Quraysh aristocracy of Makkah which had amassed too much wealth in the wake of conquests opposed Ali vehemently. It was this group led by Muawiya that demanded the immediate trial of the murderers of Usman. When Ali failed to meet their demand to bring the murderer to book without delay, they revolted against Ali. Aisha, Prophet’s wife, Talha, and Zubayr, prominent Companions of the Prophet, also took a leading part. This episode, known as “the battle of the camel” was suppressed, although after much bloodshed.
A hopeless man sees difficulties in every chance, but a hopeful person sees chances in every difficulty. — Ali ibn Abi Talib
Ali had now established himself as Caliph by defeating his rivals. He had shifted the capital from Madinah to Kufah. The first priority in the matters of the state was given to the dismissal of the provincial governors. Muawiya ibn abi Sufiyan, governors of Syria and a relative of Usman too was dismissed. But Muawiya who had established himself securely in Syria did not accept the dismissal order. He came out openly to avenge the martyred Caliph. It was an issue on which he could mobilize a great majority of Muslims. He made eloquent speeches to play upon Muslim emotions. He took the stand that since the new Caliph is evading the issue of bringing the assassins to account, which is the demand of justice, the Caliph therefore stands disqualified for the office of the caliphate. In this way Muawiya justified his insurrection against the elected Caliph.
Muawiya gathered a large army of Syrians while the army of Ali comprised 50,000 Iraqis. The encounter look place on July 28, 657. Malik al-Ashtar was commanding Ali’s forces. Ali was on the point of victory. But the shrewd Muawiya and his supporter Amr ibn al-As managed to avert defeat by proposing arbitration. Ali saw through this trick. But his army forced him to accept the principle of arbitration. This greatly weakened his position.
Then, another group emerged known as Kharijites (Dissenters). Earlier supporters of Ali, now they turned against him. They maintained that Ali should not have accepted arbitration. They became so deadly against the Caliph that anyone who said that he was the follower of the Caliph was mercilessly killed.
Ali inflicted the Kharijites a decisive defeat at Nahrawan. Thousands of them were killed in the battlefield. But this defeat did not end the Kharijite opposition for they were spread out in different parts of the country. The extremist among them preached lawlessness, saying: “All authority belongs to God, so there should be no government”.
Ali was engaged in extirpating the Kharijites and Muawiya found enough time to increase his influence among the people. Displaying great diplomacy Muawiya managed to cut the ground from under Ali’s feet steadily, by adopting an aggressive policy against the Caliph. Ultimately by the end of 600, Ali had lost control of Egypt and Hijaz. His popularity was diminishing day by day.
Recitation of the Quran without contemplation and thought is futile. — Ali ibn Abi Talib
The forces of Ali and Muawiya met at Siffin. When Muawiya realized that he was going to lose the battle he managed to force the end of the fighting by having pages of the Quran fixed to the lances of his troops. Ali was obliged to accept arbitration. When Ali agreed to this, some of his supporters abandoned him. They were not willing to accept the compromise. During the months of discussions between the arbiters, Ali’s alliance grew weaker. The Kharijites who had revolted ultimately decided to assassinate Ali.
Early one morning while he was praying in a mosque at Kufah in Iraq, a Kharijite struck him with a poisoned sword to avenge the men slain at Nahrawan. Two days later, Ali died and was buried near Kufah. The most glorious chapter in the history of Islam came to an end by the death of Ali.
The spot near Kufah known as Mashhad Ali developed into one of the great centres of pilgrimage. Ali’s caliphate lasted for four years and nine months. Ali’s political discourses, sermons, letters, and sayings collected in a book entitled Nahj al-Balagha (The Road of Eloquence) are well-known in Arabic literature.
According to the famous historian, Philip K Hitti, “Ali dead proved more effective than Ali living. As a canonized martyr, he retrieved at once more than he had lost in a life-time. Though lacking in those traits that constitute a leader and a politician, viz-alertness, foresight, resolution, expediency, he still possessed the qualities of an ideal Arabian. Valiant in battle, wise in counsel, eloquent in speech, true to his friends, magnanimous to his foes, he became both the paragon of Muslim nobility and chivalry.”
Dr. Farida Khanam
This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it.